SECONDARY REFERENCES
Historical Background
Corporate.mcdonalds.com. 2021. Financial Information. [online] Available at: https://corporate.mcdonalds.com/corpmcd/investors/financial-information.html [Accessed 21 February 2021].
This website provides the financial history of the McDonald’s Corporation. On this website you can find stock information, quarterly financial results, and annual results.
Mcdonalds.com. 2021. Our History: Ray Kroc & The McDonald’s Brothers | McDonald’s [online] Available at: https://www.mcdonalds.com/us/en-us/about-us/our-history.html [Accessed 19 February 2021].
On this page of the McDonald’s Corporation website, you will find information about the origins and unique philosophy of the company. The origin story of McDonald’s includes their longstanding passion for quality, and emphasizes their principles of value, service, and cleanliness.
Theoretical Framework
Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen. 1995. “Adolescents’ Uses of Media for Self-Socialization.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 24(5):519-533. Doi: 10.1007/BF01537054
Arnett focuses on the role of media in the socialization of adolescents. He states that adolescents use media in a kind of self-socialization, independent of the influence of parents and other adult socializers. The five uses of media by adolescents can be separated into socializers: entertainment, identity formation, high sensation, coping, and youth culture identification. He finds that when choosing one socializer, it can sometimes result in conflict with other socializers when adolescents use media in ways that go against the values or goals of their parents.
John, Deborah Roedder. 1999. “Consumer Socialization of Children: A Retrospective Look at Twenty-Five Years of Research.” Journal of Consumer Research 26:183-213. doi: 10.1086/209559
The purpose of this article is to assess how children develop as consumers. John focuses on the developmental sequence and growth of consumer knowledge of children as they mature. She presents a conceptual framework for understanding consumer socialization as a series of stages, as children grow older and mature both cognitively and socially. John then reviewed the findings on children’s knowledge of products, brands, advertising, shopping, pricing, and decision-making strategies. The results of these studies showed that there is no doubt that children are socialized from an early age, and that advertising towards young children is not going to subside anytime soon.
Moore, Elizabeth S. 2004. “Children and the Changing World of Advertising.” Journal of Business Ethics 52:161-167. Doi: 10.1023/B:BUSI.0000035907.66617.f5
Moore discusses how several public policy leaders and consumer advocates have questions about the fairness of marketing towards children. With the increasing presence of media, advertising has become ever-present in the lives of many American children. She talks about children as a target market, as well as existing protections that exist in the marketplace. Advertising and entertainment can be hard to distinguish from each other in today’s society, which marks children as consumers even when they are unaware of it.
Social Scientific Literature Review
Prevalence of Childhood Obesity
Eagle, Taylor F., BS, Anne Sheetz, MPH, Roopa Gurm, MS, Alan C. Woodward, MD, Eva Kline-Rogers, MS, RN, NP, Robert Leibowitz, PhD, Jean DuRussel-Weston, RN, MPH, CHES, LaVaughn Palma-Davis, MA, Susan Aaronson, MA, RD, Catherine M. Fitzgerald, MA, RD, Lindsey R. Mitchell, MPH, Bruce Rogers, BS, Patricia Bruenger, BA, CCRC, Katherine A. Skala, MPH, CHES, Caren Goldberg, MD, Elizabeth A. Jackson, MD, MPH, Steven R. Erickson, PharmaD, and Kim A. Eagle, MD. 2012. “Understanding childhood obesity in America: Linkages between household income, community resources, and children’s behaviors.” American Heart Journal 163(5):836-843. Doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2012.02.025
This article sought to define the association between childhood obesity and household income. The authors assessed body mass index of children in Massachusetts, identifying the percentage of children who were overweight versus the percentage of children in each community residing in low-income areas. They found that the prevalence of obesity rises in communities with lower household incomes, as these children often exhibit poorer dietary and physical activity behaviors.
Fryar, Cheryl D., Margaret D. Carroll, and Cynthia L. Ogden. 2014. “Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity Among Children and Adolescents: United States, 1963-1965 Through 2011- 2012.” Health E-Stats, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1:1-6. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity_child_15_16/obesity_child_15_16.pdf
This report is from the CDC website and gives information regarding the prevalence of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents in the United States from 1963-1965 through 2011-2012. Results from the 2011-2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey indicate that an estimated 16.9% of U.S. children and adolescents aged 2-19 years are obese, and another 14.9% are overweight.
Fryar, Cheryl D., Margaret D. Carroll, M.S.P.H., and Joseph Afful, M.S. 2020. “Prevalence of Overweight, Obesity, and Severe Obesity Among Children and Adolescents Aged 2-19 Years: United States, 1963-1965 Through 2017-2018.” National Center for Health Statistics, Health E-Stats 1:1-7. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity-child-17-18/overweight-obesity-child-H.pdf.
This report comes from the National Center for Health Statistics, and provides information on the prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents from 1963-1965 through 2017-2018. In the most recent report from 2018, the child obesity rate was at its highest at 19.3%.
Hales, Craig M., Margaret D. Carroll, Cheryl D. Fryar, and Cynthia L. Ogden. 2017. “Prevalence of Obesity Among Adults and Youth: United States, 2015-2016.” NCHS Data Brief 288:1-8. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db288.pdf
This report from the CDC website addresses the prevalence of obesity among both adults and youth in the United States during 2015-2016. Information is given regarding trends in rates, as well as variances by race and gender.
Hilmers, Angela, David C. Hilmers and Jayna Dave. 2012. “Neighborhood Disparities in Access to Healthy Foods and Their Effects of Environmental Justice.” American Journal of Public Health 102(9):1644-1654. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2012.300865
This article discusses how the distribution of fast-food outlets and convenience stores differs by the racial/ethnic characteristics of the neighborhood. They conducted searches in MedLine, PubMed, PsycINFO, EBSCO, and Scopus databases. Policy initiatives such as calorie labeling in fast-food restaurants are intended to help consumers make informed menu choices. However, assessments of the effectiveness of these regulations have yielded inconsistent results. The emergence of so-called urban food deserts – areas with limited access to healthy food sources and high levels of racial segregation and income inequality – mandates public health intervention.
Kraft, Amber N., Esther J. Thatcher, and Shannon N. Zenk. 2020. “Neighborhood Food Environment and Health Outcomes in U.S. Low-Socioeconomic Status, Racial/Ethnic Minority, and Rural Populations: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 31(3):1078-1114. doi: 10.1353/hpu.2020.0083.
Kraft, Thatcher, and Zenk discuss how low socioeconomic status groups such as Black, Hispanic, and Native American, and rural populations experience a higher than average burden of obesity, and other diet-related chronic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The primary aim of this review is to examine the state of the science on associations between the neighborhood food environment and diet-related health outcomes in populations with the highest rates of obesity. The authors used PubMed, Ovid Medline, Web of Science, and Google Scholar as databases for years available through 2017. Five studies examined food outlet-health associations in low-SES youth. This examination found that proximity to convenience stores and full service-restaurants were significantly associated with higher BMI, derived from self reported height and weight.
Kumanyika, Shiriki and Sonya Grier. 2006. “Targeting Interventions for Ethnic Minority and Low-Income Populations.” The Future of Children 16(1):187-207. doi: 10.1353/foc.2006.0005
This research article discusses how various environmental factors can have larger effects on minorities, specifically children, than on their more advantaged white peers. Kumanyika and Grier find that the way to fight obesity in minority and low-income areas will depend on the “nation’s will” to change the social and physical environments in which these communities exist. After analyzing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), the authors discovered that obesity rates for ethnic minority children exceeded rates for white children by 10 to 12 percent. This article finds that most research on food advertising does not focus on ethnic minority or low-income groups, but it does indicate that ethnic minorities are more responsive to targeted ads.
Lucan, Sean C., Frances K. Barg, and Judith A. Long. 2010. “Promoters and Barriers to Fruit, Vegetable, and Fast-Food Consumption Among Urban, Low-Income African Americans – A Qualitative Approach.” American Journal of Public Health 100(4):631-635. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2009.172692
This article gave a more holistic approach to overall diet and consumption among low income groups. The authors stated that low income African Americans tend to have diets that promote obesity, morbidity, and premature mortality because they are low in fruits and vegetables, and are high in processed foods. To build on the previous work, Lucan’s goal was to identify the promoters and barriers to fruit, vegetable and fast-food consumption that are more noticeable to urban, low-income African Americans and to see if they can identify variation by gender or age. The methods involved conducting interviews in Philadelphia in a community that was more than 95% African American with 20% of residents below the poverty level. The results of this study showed that cravings promoted fast foods, preferences promoted fast foods and fruits but were barriers to vegetables, and cost and finances were barriers to all foods.
Lydon, Christina A., Kerry D. Rohmeier, Sophia C. Yi, Mark A. Mattaini, and W. Larry Williams. 2011. “How Far Do You Have To Go To Get A Cheeseburger Around Here? The Realities of An Environmental Design Approach to Curbing the Consumption of Fast Food.” Journal of Behavior and Social Issues 20:6-23. doi: 10.5210/bsi.v20i0.3637
Many would describe the increasing rates of obesity in the U.S. as an epidemic, and most researchers agree that this dangerous trend is primarily due to environmental factors. The ready availability and popularity of energy-dense foods among the public in the form of “fast food” has likely contributed to an increasingly obesogenic environment. Consumers are eating high levels of fat, saturated fat, sodium, cholesterol, sugar, and simple carbohydrates and failing to consume adequate vitamins and minerals. Responding to critics, many fast-food establishments have begun to include more healthy items on their menu – while this has increased the number of healthy items people purchase, it has not seemed to curb customer’s appetites for other, less healthy items, thus failing to address the problems trying to be solved.
Ogden, Cynthia, and Margaret Carroll. 2010. “Prevalence of Obesity Among Children and Adolescents: United States, Trends 1963-1965 Through 2007-2008.” Health E-Stats, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1:1-5. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity_child_07_08/obesity_child_07_08.htm
This Health E-Stats report provides information on the prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents from 1963-1965 through 2007-2008. Ogden and Carroll address racial and ethnic disparities in adolescent obesity, along with the differences in rates between genders.
Ogden, Cynthia L., Margaret D. Carroll, Tala H. Fakhouri, Craig M. Hales, Cheryl D. Fryar, Xianfen Li, David S. Freedman. 2018. “Prevalence of Obesity Among Youths by Household Income and Education Level of Head of Household – United States 2011-2014.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, US Department of Health and Human Services/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 67(6):186-189. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6706a3
This report discusses the prevalence of obesity among youths based on household income and the education level of the head of household. This data is from 2011-2014, and the survey used consisted of in-home interviews and standardized physical examinations conducted in mobile examination centers. The results of this survey found that the relationships between childhood obesity and income and childhood obesity and education of household head were complex, differing based upon the subgroup of the population. However, overall findings demonstrated that lower levels of income are not universally associated with childhood obesity.
Ro, Annie and Brandon Osborn. 2018. “Exploring Dietary Factors in the Food Insecurity and Obesity Relationship Among Latinos in California.” Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 29(3):1108-1122. doi: 10.1353/hpu.2018.0082
This paper explores two factors potentially underlying the relationship between high food insecurity and obesity as they pertain to dietary behavior. The authors specifically consider whether individual dietary behaviors or the neighborhood food environment as it pertains to fresh produce can account for the association between food insecurity and obesity. (1) They consider the association of individual consumption of soda and fast food. (2) They assess the availability and affordability of healthy foods in the neighborhood.
Unger, Jennifer B., Kim Reynolds, Sohaila Shakib, Donna Spruijt-Metz, and Ping Sun. 2004. “Acculturation, Physical Activity, and Fast-Food Consumption Among Asian-American and Hispanic Adolescents.” Journal of Community Health 29(6):467-481. doi: 10.1007/s10900-004-3395-3
This article addresses the prevalence of childhood obesity in the U.S. and reports that it is rapidly increasing. In 2001, 24% of high school students were classified as overweight or at risk for being overweight. The authors talk about how it may be possible to reverse these recent trends because two of the major causes of obesity – diet and physical activity – are behavioral risk factors that can be modified. The data in this article comes from a longitudinal study of health behaviors among Hispanic and Asian-American adolescents living in an ethnically diverse, urban social context. The results of this study showed that acculturation to the U.S. reported in 6th grade was associated with a lower frequency to physical activity and a higher frequency of fast-food consumption in 7th grade. These results indicate that among Asian-American and Hispanic adolescents living in a diverse urban social context, acculturation to the U.S. culture might increase the risk of engaging in obesity-promoting behaviors. Family processes also might play a role in these observed associations.
Targeted Food Advertising
Bryman, Alan. 2003. “McDonald’s as a Disneyized Institution: Global Implications.” The American Behavioral Scientist 47(2):154-167. doi: 10.1177/0002764203256181
Bryman explores the idea of “McDonaldization” and how it is a trend that is enveloping more spheres of contemporary society. In addition to “McDonaldization”, the idea of Disneyization is also discussed. Disneyization is “the process by which the principles of the Disney theme parks are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world.” The author proposes whether McDonald’s is a Disneyized institution, since the principles of Disneyization are closely connected with the rise of consumerism. There are two main ways in which de-differentiation of consumption can be seen in relation to McDonald’s. One is through the way its tie-ins with companies such as Disney become the context for distribution of toys in Happy Meals. The second way is the way in which it is frequently implicated in settings that bring together a variety of consumption, such as the presence of McDonald’s in malls or theme parks.
Grier, Sonya and Brennan Davis. 2013. “Are All Proximity Effects Created Equal? Fast Food Near Schools and Body Weight Among Diverse Adolescents.” Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 32(1):116-128. doi: 10.1509/jppm.11.158
The authors of this article report that rising obesity rates can lead to social and economic costs for society; however, this can mask the actual complexity of understanding obesity in youth because there are significant differences in causes by age, gender, and ethnicity. The observed ethnic and income differences are characterized as “obesity disparities”. Grier and Davis suggest that a greater proximity to unhealthy food is related to unhealthy weight. This article focused on fast food near schools because the fast food industry uses youth as a target marketer.
Lamichhane, Archana P., Joshua Warren, Robin Puett, Dwayne E. Porter, Matteo Bottai, Elizabeth J. Mayer-Davis, and Angela D. Liese. 2013. “Spatial patterning of supermarkets and fast-food outlets with respect to neighborhood characteristics.” Health & Place 23:1-21. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.07.002
This journal article explored the prevalence of both supermarkets and fast-food outlets based on neighborhood characteristics. The authors found that compared to neighborhoods without a supermarket, those with a supermarket had a significantly higher income, housing value, larger high school population, and lower minority population. They discussed how residents of poor and minority neighborhoods have less access to environments that support healthy dietary choices, and greater access to environments supporting unhealthy dietary choices than affluent and white neighborhoods.
Advertising to Children
Calvert, Sandra L. 2008. “Children as Consumers: Advertising and Marketing.” The Future of Children 18(1):205-234. doi: 10.1353/foc.0.0001.
Calvert examines product marketing to children and shows that although marketers have targeted children for decades, two recent trends have increased their interested in child consumers: (1) both the discretionary income of children and their power to influence parent purchases have increased over time, (2) digital interactive technologies have opened new routes to advertise to children. Youths also shape the buying patterns of their families, from vacation choices to car purchases to meal selections. Marketing practices such as repetition, branded environments, and free prizes are effective methods in attracting children’s attention, making products stay in their memory, and influencing their purchase choices.
Dixon, Helen, Philippa Niven, Maree Scully, Melanie Wakefield. 2017. “Food marketing with movie character toys: Effects on young children’s preferences for unhealthy and healthier fast food.” Appetite 117:342-350. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.07.014
This article discusses how food promotions have a direct effect on children’s nutrition knowledge, preferences, purchase behavior, consumption patterns and diet-related health. This study explored children’s reactions to a form of child-targeted food marketing – movie tie-in premiums (MTIPs). The author’s use McDonald’s as an example; McDonald’s Happy Meals featured toys promoting movies such as A Bug’s Life and Toy Story. Ethical concerns have been raised about using premiums and licensed characters to market unhealthy foods to children, based on the nature of these promotional strategies and children’s vulnerability to being misled by advertising. This study aimed to test whether movie character toy premiums accompanying unhealthy and healthier fast food means influence young children’s meal preferences.
Emond, Jennifer A., Meghan R. Longacre, Keith M. Drake, Linda J. Titus, Kristy Hendricks, Todd MacKenzie, Jennifer L. Harris, Jennifer E. Carroll, Lauren P. Cleveland, Kelly Gaynor, Madeline A. Dalton. 2019. “Influence of child-targeted fast food TV advertising exposure on fast food intake: A longitudinal study of pre-school age children.” Appetite 140(1):134-141. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2019.05.012
Childhood obesity has been a public health epidemic, and children who are overweight by the age of 5 faced an increased risk of being overweight as they become an adolescent or adult. Specifically, the preschool years are a formative time in which to shape food preferences and eating behaviors. This study hypothesized that exposure to child-directed fast food advertisements would increase fast food consumption among children. Results showed that McDonald’s intake was highest among children with parents who more frequently consumed fast food, regardless of advertisement exposure. Specifically, among children whose parents do not frequently consume fast food, exposure to child-targeted McDonald’s advertising approximately doubled children’s risk of consuming McDonald’s. Young children do not purchase food on their own, but can influence parent food purchases through their requests.
Hourigan, Kristen Lee. 2020. “Girls Try, Boys Aim High: Exposing Difference in Implied Ability, Activity, and Agency of Girls Versus Boys in Language on McDonald’s Happy Meal Boxes.” Sex Roles 1:1-15. doi: 10.1007/s11199-020-01173-7
Hourigan conducted this research out of awareness of the gender division on McDonald’s Happy Meal boxes because she was always asked by the cashiers if the meal would be “for a boy or a girl”. The majority of Happy Meal boxes feature two distinct themes, one targeting young girls and the other targeting young boys. Hourigan underwent a nine-year data collection process during which she collected each Happy Meal box distributed in the U.S., and her goal was to uncover the subtle messages being transmitted to children by marketers. The findings of this study show that girl-oriented sides are more likely than boy-oriented sides to have verbs related to physical appearance and social relatedness. Social relatedness verbs that appeared on boy-oriented sides are more likely to refer to forming groups, whereas girl-oriented sides are more likely related to nurturing characteristics.
Story, Mary and Simone French. 2004. “Food Advertising and Marketing Directed at Children and Adolescents in the US.” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 1(3):1-17. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-1-3
Story and French analyze the ways in which nutrition, health, and wellness throughout childhood and adolescence are essential for growth and development. Eating behaviors established during childhood can evolve into adulthood and contribute to long-term health and disease risk. Over the past 10 years, U.S. children have increasingly been targeted with aggressive forms of food marketing through a range of channels. Children influence how billions of dollars are spent through household purchases, and are future adult consumers. Because this marketing to children has become so pervasive, many child advocates and media experts believe that this marketing is escalating public health problems.
McDonald’s Role in Public Health
Adams, Catherine. 2007. “Reframing the Obesity Debate: McDonald’s Role May Surprise You.” The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 35(1):154-157. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-720X.2007.00120.x
This article was written by Catherine Adams, the Vice-President of the McDonald’s Corporation, and she gives her perspective on McDonald’s being blamed for aiding in the rise in obesity rates. Adams admits that their leadership position in the food industry demands that they take a seat at the table for solutions to nutrition and obesity challenges. Adams claims that McDonald’s routinely employs the advice of third-party experts to help direct their food programs, including their Global Advisory Council for Nutrition and Balanced Active Lifestyles. Adams concludes the article by saying that McDonald’s role is not apologetic as they are a partner equally dedicated to responsible and sustainable solutions.
Adams, Ronald. 2005. “Fast Food, Obesity, and Tort Reform: An Examination of Industry Responsibility for Public Health.” Business and Society Review 110(3):297-320. doi: 10.1111/j.0045-3609.2005.00017.x
Ronald Adams discusses how fast food finds itself at the center of controversy in today’s society regarding its impact on public health. In this article, Adams assesses the current obesity crisis, while focusing on the question of industry responsibility: To what extent, if any, should the fast-food industry be held accountable for the obesity crisis? He states that body weight is influenced by a combination of genetic, metabolic, behavioral, environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural factors. However, for most people, excessive weight gain results when caloric intake exceeds calories expended on physical activity. Adams discusses how the industry has responded to the obesity crisis in the form of healthier menu options and nutrition information provided. Although there might not be a causal relationship, there is little question but that obesity rates and fast food have both grown exponentially.
Lewin, Alexandra, Lauren Lindstrom, and Marion Nestle. 2006. “Food Industry Promises to Address Childhood Obesity: Preliminary Evaluation.” Journal of Public Health Policy 27:327-348. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200098
This article discusses how food companies have come under increasing pressure to produce more nutritious products to market them more responsibly. In 2005, the World Health Organization requested field comparisons of the promises and practices of McDonald’s and Kraft Foods. The World Health Organization said that food companies should “practice responsible marketing that supports the strategy, particularly with regard to the promotion and marketing of foods high in saturated fats, trans-fatty acids, free sugars, or salt, especially to children.” While McDonald’s has made some efforts to include healthier options, its primary marketing methods to children continues to promote hamburgers, sodas and fries.
